[1st] TOPIC ......INDIAN HISTORY........THIS IS ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY
FULLY
DETAIL INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION
UPSC/JPSP/PCS/SSC/IBPS ALWAYS ASKED Q FROM THIS PART OF
HISTORY
At the stroke of the midnight hour, when the
world slept, India awoke to life and freedom on 15th August 1947. On that day,
India emerged as an Independent Nation, a nation proud of its ancient culture
and civilization. People believed that Indian civilization began with the
advent of Aryans. But the discovery of the Indus Valley Civilization proved
that a highly developed urban civilization flourished in India much before the
arrival of the Aryans.
As early as 1826, Harappa, located in West Punjab
(now in Pakistan), attracted the attention of archaeologists. General
Cunningham, a British Officer in India, gets credit for preliminary
investigation in Harappa. He had visited the place many times and published a
report on the Harappa's pictographic unicorn seal in 1875 in the Archaeological
Survey of India.
Later on, the two officers of the Archaeological
Survey of India, Mr. R.D. Banerjee and Mr. R.B. Daya Ram Sahni, carried on
excavations in the Larkana district of Sindh province and the Montgomery
district of the Punjab. Mr. Sahni discovered the ruins of Harappa in 1921. Mr.
Banerjee dug out the ruins of the pre-historic city of Mohen-jo-Daro in 1922.
The ruins in these two cities showed that a rich civilization flourished in the
country about 3,000 B.C. As the sites of the excavations were situated along
the valley of the river Indus and its tributaries, historians named it 'the
Indus Valley Civilization'. It was also called the Harappan culture as the
first site of this civilization was discovered in Harappa.
The Harappan culture was a landmark in the history
of man's struggle towards a better civilization. It has proved that some five
thousand years ago, highly civilized people lived in the region. "The Indus Valley people gave to the world its earliest
cities, its first town planning, its first architecture in stone and clay, its
first example of sanitary engineering and drainage system."
*The Indus Valley Civilization was not confined to these two sites
in the north-western area of the subcontinent. The influence of this culture
extended to the Punjab, Sindh, North West Frontier Province (now in Pakistan),
Baluchistan, Rajasthan, U.P., Gujarat and even some parts of south India.
This civilization was spread over an area of about
1600 kilometers from West to East and 1100 kilometers from North to South.
However, recent excavations in Gujarat have shown that the extent of the
civilization is much more than what people had thought it to be earlier.
Research scholars are of the opinion that this civilization has spread over an
area of 1,300,000 square kilometers, which is more than that of any ancient
civilization known so far.
Important Sites :
Though there are many sites of the Indus Valley
Civilization, Mohen-jo-Daro and Harappa are considered more important, as these
were the biggest centers of the civilization.
Mohen-jo-Daro in the Sindhi language, means the
'Mound of the Dead'. It was located in the Larkana district of Sindh (now in
Pakistan). Here a big city was found buried under the mound.
Harappa was situated on the bank of the river
Ravi in the Montgomery district of West Punjab (now in Pakistan). Mohen-jo-daro
type of civilization existed also in this city.
Other important sites were Chanu daro in Sindh (Pakistan)
about 130 kilomatres south of Mohen-jo-daro, Lothal near Ahmedabad in Gujarat,
kali bangan in Rajasthan, Alamgir near Hatinapur in U.P. and Ropar in the
Punjab, at the foothills of Shivalik.
*Archaeologists like Sir John Marshall thought that the Indus
Valley Civilization belonged to the period between 3250 B.C. and 2750 B.C. It
is the period when the Egyptians, Babylonian and Mesopotamian Civilizations
flourished.
From the objects discovered at the cities of the
Indus Valley Civilizations, historians have made a comparative study of the
contemporary civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt and Babylonia. They came to
the conclusion that the Indus Valley Civilization was at its height of glory
during the period of the contemporary civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt and
Babylonia.
Therefore, it was concluded that the Indus Valley
Civilization existed between 3250 B.C. and 2750 B.C. as during this period
Mesopotamian, Egyptian and Babylonian Civilizations flourished. However,
recently Indian archeologists using the technique of radio carbon dating, are
inclined to believe that the period of Harappan culture extended from 2500 B.C.
to 1500 B.C.
*Town Planning: The excavations of the ruins showed a remarkable skill in
town planning. The main streets and roads were set in a line, sometimes running
straight for a mile, and were varying in width from 4 meters to 10 meters. Most
of these roads and streets were paved with fire brunt bricks. On the either
side of the street stood houses of various sizes which did not protrude into
the streets. The main streets intersected at right angles, dividing the city
into squares or rectangular blocks each of which was divided length wise and cross
wise by lanes. Some buildings had a lamp post and a well. There was an
elaborate drainage system which emptied into the river.
The Drainage System;
The Drainage System of the Indus Valley Civilization was far advanced. The
drains were covered with slabs. Water flowed from houses into the street
drains. The street drains had manholes at regular intervals. Housewives were
expected to use pits in which heavier part of the rubbish will settle down
while only sewerage water was allowed to drain off. All soak pits and drains
were occasionally cleaned by workmen. In every house there was a
well-constructed sink, and water flowed from the sink into the underground
sewers in the streets. This elaborate drainage system shows that the Indus
Valley people were fully conversant with the principles of health and
sanitation.
Houses: The
houses were of different sizes varying from a palatial building to one with two
small rooms. The houses had a well, a bathroom, and a covered drain connected
to the drain in the street. The buildings were made of burnt bricks, which have
been preserved even to this day. Sun-dried bricks were used for the foundation
of the buildings and the roofs were flat and made of wood. The special feature
of the houses was that rooms were built around an open courtyard. Some houses
were double storied. Some buildings had pillared halls; some of them measured
24 square meters. It is assumed that there also must have been palaces, temples
or municipal halls.
Great Bath: One of the largest buildings was the Great Bath measuring
180 feet by 108 feet. The bathing pool, 39 feet long, 28 feet wide and 8 feet
deep was in the center of the quadrangle, surrounded with verandahs, rooms and
galleries. A flight of steps led to the pool. The pool could be filled and
emptied by means of a vaulted culvert, 6 feet and 6 inches high. The walls of
the pool were made of burnt bricks laid on edge, which made the pool
watertight. The pool was filled with water from a large well, situated in the
same complex. Periodic cleaning of the pool was done by draining off the used
water into a big drain. The Great Bath building had six entrances. The Great
Bath reflected the engineering genius of those ancient days.
Great Granary:
Another large building in the city was the Great Granary which was made about
45 meters long and 15 meters wide. It was meant to store food grains. It had
lines of circular brick platforms for pounding grain. There were barrack like
quarters for workmen. The granary also had smaller halls and corridors.
The Assembly Hall:
An important feature of Mohen-jo-daro was its 24 square meters pillared hall.
It had five rows of pillars, with four pillars in each row. Kiln baked bricks
were used to construct these pillars. Probably, it was the Assembly Hall or the
ruler's court. It is said that it also housed the municipal office which had
the charge of town planning and sanitation.
*Food: Specimens of wheat and barley show that they were
cultivated in that region. Rice was also probably grown. There is evidence to show
that date palms were grown in the area. Besides these, the diet of the people
consisted of fruits, vegetables, fish, milk and meat of animals i.e. beef,
mutton and poultry.
Dress: From
the sculptured figures it can be seen that the dress of men and women consisted
of two pieces of cloth-one resembling a dhoti, covering the lower part, and the
other worn over the left shoulder and under the right arm. Men had long hair
designed differently. Women wore a fan shaped head dress covering there hair.
The discovery of a large number of spindles showed that they knew weaving and
spinning. Similarly it was concluded, by the discovery of needles and buttons,
that the people of this age knew the art of stitching.
Ornaments: Both
men and women wore ornaments made of gold, silver, copper and other metals. Men
wore necklaces, finger rings and armlets of various designs and shapes. The
women wore a head dress, ear rings, bangles, girdles, bracelets and anklets.
Rich people wore expensive ornaments made of gold while the poor had ornaments
made of shell, bone or copper.
Cosmetics: The
ladies of Mohen-jo-daro were not lagging behind in styles as used by the ladies
of the present day, when it came to the use of cosmetics and the attainment of
beauty. Materials made of ivory and metal for holding and applying cosmetics
prove that they knew the use of face paint and collyrium. Bronze oval mirrors,
ivory combs of various shapes, even small dressing tables, have been found at
Mohen-jo-daro and other sites. Women tied the hair into a bun and used hair
pins made of ivory. Toilet jars, found at Mohen-jo-daro, show that women took
interest in cosmetics.
Furniture and Utensils: The furniture and utensils found at Mohen-jo-daro show a
high degree of civilization because of their variety in kind and design. The
beautifully painted pottery, numerous vessels for the kitchen, chairs and beds
made of wood, lamps of different material, toys for children, marbles, balls
and dice, indicate what people manufactured in those days.
Conveyance A copper specimen found at Harappa
resembles the modern Ekka (cart) with a top-cover. Bullock carts with or
without the roof was the chief means of conveyance.
Amusements and Recreation: The Indus Valley people liked more of indoor games than
outdoor amusements. They were fond of gambling and playing dice. Dancing and
singing were considered great arts. Boys played with toys made of terracotta,
while girls played with dolls.
*Agriculture: Agriculture was the main occupation of the Indus Valley
people. Crops such as wheat, barley, peas and bananas were raised. In the olden
days, there was enough rain in that region and occasional floods brought a
great deal of fertile soil to the area. People used to plough the land with
wooden ploughshares drawn by men and oxen. From the existence of granaries it
is concluded that there were surplus food-grains.
Domestication of Animals: The people of Harappa domesticated animals like oxen,
buffaloes, pigs, goats and sheep. Camels and asses were used as means of
transport. Dogs and cats were kept as pets. The humped bull was considered a
great asset in the farming community. Crafts The discovery of spindles at the
sites of Harappan culture shows that the people used to spin and weave.
Goldsmiths made jewellery of gold, silver and precious stones. People were also
engaged in brick-laying and in the art of sculpture. The making of seals was
developed during this period. Bronze-smiths made various types of weapons and
tools such as knives, spears, saws and axes which were used in daily life.
Trade:
Traders carried on trade in the country as well as with other countries like
Egypt, Babylon and Afghanistan. Many seals of Harappa found in Mesopotamia show
that trade existed between the two countries. The seals were made of terracotta
and were used by merchants to stamp their goods.
The people of the Indus Valley used weights and
measures in their business transactions. They used 16 and its multiplies: 64,
160 and 320, in measurement and weight.
*The discovery of statues, figurines of men and women in
terracotta, stone and metal indicate that people of the area were great artists
and sculptors.
Sculpture in Stone:
Among the stone images found in Harappa two male statues are noteworthy. One of
them is artistically decorated while the other is kept naked. The first statue
is that of a yogi, draped in a shawl worn over the left shoulder and under the
right arm. His beard is well-kept and his eyes are half-closed. The other
figure is a torso of a human male. It is beautiful piece of sculpture made of
red stone. The head and arms of the figure were carved separately and socketed
into holes drilled on the torso.
Sculpture in Metal:
The Harappan artists knew the art of bronze casting. They used the special lost
wax process in which the wax figures were covered with a coating of clay. Then
the wax was melted by heating and the hollow mould thus created was filled with
molten metal which took the original shape of the object. A figure of a female
naked dancer was found at Mohen-jo-daro. Necklaces adorn her breast. One of her
arms is fully covered with bangles made of bone or ivory. Her eyes are large,
nose is flat and the lips are pendulous. Her hair is braided and her head is
slightly thrown back. Her limbs suggest graceful lines. Besides the figurine,
bronze figures of a buffalo and a humped bull are very artistically designed.
Sculpture in Terracotta: The Indus Valley people practiced sculpture in terracotta.
The teracota figure of the Mother Goddess was discovered in Mohen-jo-daro. The
figure, with a punched nose and artistic ornamentation laid on the body and
pressed on the figure, shows the Mother Goddess as the symbol of fertility and
prosperity.
Pottery and Painting: Pottery found in large quantities shows that with the
potter's wheel the craftsman produced pottery of various artistic shapes. The
special clay for this purpose was baked and the different designs on pots were
painted. Figures of birds, animals and men were depicted on the pots. Paintings
on the pots show, that these men were equally good at painting.
*The Indus Valley people had some knowledge of the art of writing,
though in a rudimentary way. No regular documents on stone or baked clay
tablets have been found but the numerous seals, representing unicorns and bulls
and other objects give us the idea that the people had a language of their own.
Some historians are of the view that the script found on the seals are similar
to the ones used in Egypt, Sumeria and other countries of Western Asia. The
script is pictographic, but still remains un-deciphered though there are nearly
four hundred signs.
The writing was generally from left to right, but
in some cases it was in the opposite direction i.e., right to left in the first
line and left to right in the second. The Indus Valley script resembles the
script of the ancient Mesopotamian people. Dr. S.R. Rao in his research work
Decipherment of the Indus Script holds that the Indus Valley people used the
phonetic script and in the late Harappan period the script evolved itself
towards and alphabetic pattern. He says that numerals were shown by
corresponding numbers of independent vertical lines. However, the Indus script
remains to be a puzzle to the historians and thus the riches of this
civilization remain unrevealed until this script is interpreted.
OUR NEXT ARTICLE 'LL BE THE ARYANS OR VEDIC AGE .......SOON
